The Enlightenment :: European Europe History

The Enlightenment The Enlightenment is a name given by historians to an intellectual movement that was predominant in the Western world during the 18th century. Strongly influenced by the rise of modern science and by the aftermath of the long religious conflict that followed the Reformation, the thinkers of the Enlightenment (called philosophes in France) were committed to secular views based on reason or human understanding only, which they hoped would provide a basis for beneficial changes affecting every area of life and thought. The more extreme and radical philosophes-Denis Diderot, Claude Adrien Helvetius, Baron d'Holbach, the Marquis de Condorcet, and Julien Offroy de La Mettrie (1709-51)--advocated a philosophical rationalism deriving its methods from science and natural philosophy that would replace religion as the means of knowing nature and destiny of humanity; these men were materialists, pantheists, or atheists. Other enlightened thinkers, such as Pierre Bayle, Voltaire, David Hume, Jean Le Rond D'alembert, and Immanuel Kant, opposed fanaticism, but were either agnostic or left room for some kind of religious faith. All of the philosophes saw themselves as continuing the work of the great 17th century pioneers-Francis Bacon, Galileo, Descartes, Leibnitz, Isaac Newton, and John Locke-who had developed fruitful methods of rational and empirical inquiry and had demonstrated the possibility of a world remade by the application of knowledge for human benefit. The philosophes believed that science could reveal nature as it truly is and show how it could be controlled and manipulated. This belief provided an incentive to extend scientific methods into every field of inquiry, thus laying the groundwork for the development of the modern social sciences. The enlightened understanding of human nature was one that emphasized the right to self-expression and human fulfillment, the right to think freely and express one's views publicly without censorship or fear of repression. Voltaire admired the freedom he found in England and fostered the spread of English ideas on the Continent. He and his followers opposed the intolerance of the established Christian churches of their day, as well as the European governments that controlled and suppressed dissenting opinions. For example, the social disease which Pangloss caught from Paquette was traced to a "very learned Franciscan" and later to a Jesuit. Also, Candide reminisces that his passion for Cunegonde first developed at a Mass. More conservative enlightened thinkers, concerned primarily with efficiency and administrative order, favored the "enlightened despotism" of such monarchs as Emperor Joseph II, Frederick II of Prussia, and Catherine II of Russia.

Meno Essay

Meno Paper Assignment Can virtue be taught? Plato starts off the Meno with this simple question. Prior to answering this question, Socrates is adamant about first understanding what virtue is. Socrates and Meno go back and forth throughout the story attempting to figure out the definition of virtue. When they come to the conclusion that they do not know what virtue is, they attempt to prove whether virtue can be taught, is attainable by practice, or is simply possessed by nature. As Meno asks Socrates whether virtue can be taught, Socrates explains to him that he does not know what virtue is.Meno defines virtue to Socrates in many forms. For a man virtue is managing public affairs and in turn benefiting his friends, and harming his enemies. For a woman she must manage the home well, preserve its possessions, and be submissive to her husband. He also explains that a child, a slave or an elderly man also have different virtues. Socrates refutes this definition of virtue. He has not bee n given a definition but yet a list of examples. He gets his point across to Meno by using bees as an example. There are many different types of bees, but one bee does not differ from another in the fact that they are both bees.This same concept has to be true with virtue, for there are many and various types but they all have the same form making them virtues. Here we are presented with the first rule of giving a definition, and that is simply to not give examples. Meno attempts to give Socrates a second definition, stating that virtue is simply the ability to rule over people. Once again Socrates refutes this definition. In the case of a slave or a child this cannot be true; hence this is merely another example of a specific trait of someone who is virtuous. Socrates also adds that if this were true than it would have to be justly and not unjustly.Menos response to this is that justice is virtue. Is justice virtue or is it a type of virtue? This is the next issue Socrates points o ut to Meno. In response Meno says that justice is a type of virtue, therefore he has done nothing more than give another useless example of virtue. Socrates wants to put an end to this problem so he gives Meno the definition of both shape and color to give him an example of a good definition. We are given a third definition by Meno, in which he states that virtue is to desire beautiful things and have the power to acquire them.With this Socrates translates desire for beautiful things as the desire for good things. Meno agrees with this statement, in turn allowing Socrates to once again disprove this definition. There are those who desire bad things, but in their own minds believe these bad things to be good. Therefore these people essentially desire good things but are not virtuous. Meno now explains to Socrates that he has found the definition; it is the capacity to acquire good things with justice. Socrates goes on to explain that this is yet again just a fragment of virtue.In ess ence all Meno has explained now is that virtue is virtue, for justice is a type of virtue. Socrates has brought forward the second rule of definitions, which is that you can’t use the word in the definition. At this point Meno is perplexed, and begins to get angry with Socrates. He informs him with the fact that he came here knowing exactly what virtue was, but now Socrates has driven Meno to the point that he now doesn’t know what virtue is either. Socrates explains that he has not done this purposely but that he truly is just as perplexed, and therefore they should search for this answer together.Meno displays his confusion by asking how it is even possible to search for something that you do not know at all. This is where Socrates introduces the idea that the soul is immortal and learning that which we do not know is recollection. Meno would like Socrates to show him that this is true. Consequently Socrates picks out a slave boy, who was raised in the home of Meno, and begins to ask him geometric questions. He questions the boy about a square, naming the different principles and rules of a square.As the boy begins to answer these questions correctly, Socrates points out to Meno that he has created his own right opinion concerning this logic. Through constant questioning the boy is able to form right opinions on logics that he has never before been presented. Socrates reveals to Meno that this is recollection. Being immortal the soul has learned all there is to know, whether it be in this life as a human or in a time prior to that. In turn recollection is simply the process of turning true opinions into knowledge through constant questioning.With this being known, Socrates illustrates to Meno that one should always seek to find out that which they do not know. In order to find out whether virtue can be taught Socrates and Meno set up a hypothesis that virtue is something good. Socrates begins to elaborate on this fact by stating that if virtue is good, than it is beneficial. They begin to examine what kind of things benefit an individual. Socrates and Meno both agree that Health, strength, beauty, and also wealth all benefit us. Socrates also points out that these same things can do harm do someone.So what is the directing factor that determines whether they are beneficial or harmful? All things directed by wisdom end in happiness. Therefore since virtue is beneficial, it must be knowledge. In turn virtue must be a kind of wisdom. If this is true, then virtue can be taught. Meno agrees with Socrates that this is true. Immediately after the two agree Socrates questions whether they were wrong by agreeing to this. He points out to Meno that virtue might not be knowledge. If knowledge is teachable, and virtue is knowledge, then there would be teachers as well as learners of virtue.Up to now they have not been able to come across any such individuals. At this point Anytus is introduced into the story, and Socrates invites him to join them in their search for teachers of virtue. Socrates asks Anytus if they should send Meno to the sophists who profess to teach virtue. Anytus wastes no time in sharing his negative harsh views of these sophists. Socrates tells Anytus to give Meno the name of an Athenian in which he should visit to learn the meaning of virtue. Anytus claims that any Greek citizen would be able to make him a better man that the sophists.Of these good men can any of them teach virtue, for they have yet to see this. Socrates uses Themistocles as a prime example; he was even the best of men but failed to pass down his virtue to his son. Instead he taught his son to be a great horseman. He presents Anytus with a couple other examples of virtuous men who failed to pass their virtue down to their children. At this point Anytus becomes angry and he leaves. He asks Meno if there are many good men among his people. Meno says that there are many good men. Among these good men do they agree hat they ar e teachers and virtue can be taught? Meno states that sometimes they say it can be taught, and other times they say it cannot be taught. After hearing this Socrates goes on to explain that these men cannot even agree on this point, therefore they are not teachers of this subject. Thus there are no teachers of this subject, as well as no learners, consequently virtue cannot be taught. Now that Meno and Socrates have agreed that virtue cannot be taught, Socrates begins to explain where they went wrong in their original investigation.He explains that they were right in agreeing that good men must be beneficial, and that they will be beneficent if they give correct direction in our affairs. The agreement that one cannot give correct direction if one does not have knowledge, is where they have gone wrong. One may use right opinion as a guide for correct action, in which it is no less useful than knowledge. Right opinion and knowledge differ in the fact that right opinion escapes a manâ⠂¬â„¢s mind very quickly. It is not until one ties these right opinions down, by giving an account of the reason why, that they become knowledge.Socrates explains to Meno that this is recollection, as they have previously gone over. At this point Socrates and Meno have come to a conclusion. Virtue is not teachable and is not acquired by nature, but comes to those who possess it as a gift from the gods which is not accompanies by understanding. Socrates leaves Meno and ends the story with one final statement. He says to Meno, â€Å"We shall have clear knowledge of this when, before we investigate how it comes to be present in men, we first try to find out what virtue in itself is. †

A Doll House relationship comparison: Nora and Torvald v. Christine and Krogstad Essay

Henrik Ibsen creates many interesting and complex characters in his play A Doll’s House. Both the Helmers and Christine and Krogstad have very fascinating relationships. Nora and Torvald have a very insubstantial relationship in which Nora has no say or independence and is completely under Torvald’s control. Christine and Krogstad have their share of issues but they are able to work them out like reasonable adults. Nora/Torvald and Christine/Krogstad are two fundamentally different sets of people. Nora and Torvald have been married for a long time and they do their best to make sure they are happy. Nora loves Torvald very much and would do anything to for him. â€Å"Nora: Now I will show you that I too have something to be proud of. It was I that saved Torvald’s life.† (p.10) Nora was willing to commit a crime for Torvald to keep him from becoming very ill and dying. Torvald loves Nora but sees her more as a child and is generally more concerned about what others think of him then of what Nora thinks. â€Å"Torvald: From now on, forget happiness. Now it’s just about saving the remains, the wreckage, the appearance.† (Act III) Instead of saying that he would protect her he goes into a rage and tells Nora she is unfit to have anything to do with their children. He sees her more as a fragile doll than an actual person. Nora realizes too late that all she has been to the people in her life is a marionette whose strings are passed back and forth by the male figures in her life. â€Å"Nora: I have been performing tricks for you, Torvald. That’s how I’ve survived. You wanted it like that. You and Papa have done me a great wrong. It’s because of you I’ve made nothing of my life.† (Act III). Her life has just been a performance in which she did her best to please the men in her life. She realizes that in order to become independent that she has to get away. She finally becomes independent at the end of the play and saves herself from what could be called a sham of a marriage. Christine and Krogstad were married before but Christine left Krogstad for a richer man in order to take care of her ailing mother and younger brothers. Christine loved Krogstad but at the time he did not have the money she needed to insure that her family would be taken care of. Krogstad was devastated after Christine left him, which made him into a bitter, unhappy man. â€Å"Krogstad: When I lost you, it was as if all the solid ground went out from under my feet. Look at me now–I am a shipwrecked man clinging to a bit of wreckage.† (Act III) Krogstad secretly still loves her and in the end they get back together. The one fundamental difference between the Helmers and Christine and Krogstad is that they were able to work out their problems and solve their issues like reasonable adults. Henrik Ibsen creates a fascinating tale filled with intrigue and set of characters that make for a great story. The Helmers and Christine and Krogstad have very different perceptions of what love is. The key to any healthy relationship is to be able to work out your problems and not let anything get in the way of the love felt for the other person in the relationship. Nora and Torvald in the end weren’t meant for each other and Christine and Krogstad, after working out their differences were able to continue on happily. Nora/Torvald and Christine/Krogstad truly are two fundamentally different sets of people.

Quotes to Use in a Toast at Your Sisters Wedding

Quotes to Use in a Toast at Your Sisters Wedding Your sisters getting married and youve been asked to make a toast. Fortunately, many wonderful authors have written about their sisters, providing you with some wonderful starting points for your toast. Whatever your relationship with your sister and your personal style, at least one of these will feel right to you. Heartfelt and Loving Quotes Start your toast with one of these quotes, and then add your own personal touch. Explain how the quote relates to your own relationship with your sister. Tell a little story about the bond you share. Then wish the happy couple joy! A sister is a gift to the heart, a friend to the spirit, a golden thread to the meaning of life. Isadora JamesYou may be as different as the sun and the moon, but the same blood flows through both your hearts. You need her, as she needs you. George R. R. MartinTo have a loving relationship with a sister is not simply to have a buddy or a confident - it is to have a soulmate for life.  Victoria SecundaBless you, my darling, and remember you are always in the heart- oh tucked so close there is no chance of escape- of your sister.  Katherine Mansfield Funny and Snarky Quotes If you and your sister tend to be silly rather than sincere, these quotes may be a perfect start for your toast. Use the quote, then tell a little story from your own lives that reflect the sentiment. Even if your story is a little snarky, though, be sure to finish up with a warm wish for happiness that comes from the heart! Having a sister is like having a best friend you can’t get rid of. You know whatever you do, they’ll still be there.  Amy LiMore than Santa Claus, your sister knows when you’ve been bad and good.   Linda SunshineBig sisters are the crabgrass in the lawn of life. Charles M. SchulzYou can kid the world, but not your sister.  Charlotte GrayHow the hell do you sum up your sister in three minutes? She’s your twin and your polar opposite. She’s your constant companion and your competition. She’s your best friend and the biggest bitch in the world. She’s everything you wish you could be and everything you wish you weren’t.  Ã‚  M. Molly BackesThere’s nobody in the world that knows me better than my sister.  Tia Mowry  Ã¢â‚¬ ¦she’ll go and fall in love, and there’s an end of peace and fun, and cozy times together.†Ã‚  Louisa May AlcottA sister smiles when one tells ones stories, for she knows where the decoration has been added. Chris Montaigne Sincere Quotes While some siblings feel comfortable being cute or funny at a wedding, most prefer to be sincere. These quotes give you a jumping off place for a wonderful toast that celebrates the meaning of sisterhood.   A sister is a little bit of childhood that can never be lost. Marian GarrettyThe best thing about having a sister was that I always had a friend. Cali Rae TurnerDon’t believe an accident of birth makes people sisters or brothers. It makes them siblings, gives them mutuality of parentage. Sisterhood and brotherhood is a condition people have to work at. Maya AngelouA sister can be seen as someone who is both ourselves and very much not ourselves; a special kind of double. Toni MorrisonHelp one another, is part of the religion of sisterhood. Louisa May AlcottShe is your mirror, shining back at you with a world of possibilities. She is your witness, who sees you at your worst and best, and loves you anyway. She is your partner in crime, your midnight companion, someone who knows when you are smiling, even in the dark. She is your teacher, your defense attorney, your personal press agent, even your shrink. Some days, she’s the reason you wish you were an only child.  Barb ara Alpert

Detecting Signs of E.T.

Detecting Signs of E.T. From time to time, the news media falls in love with stories about how aliens have been found. From the detection of a possible signal from a distant civilization to tales of an alien megastructure around a star observed by the Kepler Space Telescope to the story of the WOW! signal detected in 1977 by an astronomer at Ohio State University, any time theres a hint of a puzzling discovery in astronomy, we see breathless headlines that aliens have been found.   In point of fact, there hasnt been an alien civilization found...yet. But, astronomers keep looking! Finding Something Weird In late summer 2016, astronomers picked up what seemed like a signal from a distant sun-like star called HD 164595. Preliminary searches using the Allen Telescope Array in California showed that the signal picked up by a Russian telescope was not likely from an alien civilization. However, more telescopes will check out the signal to understand what it is and what could be making it. For   now, however, its problem not little green aliens sending us a howdy.   Another star, called KIC 8462852, was observed by Kepler for more than four years. It appears to have a variability in its brightness. That is, the light we perceive coming from this F-type star dims periodically. Its not a regular period of time, so its probably not caused by an orbiting planet. Such planet-caused dimmings are called transits. Kepler has cataloged many stars using the transit method and found thousands of planets this way. But, the dimming of KIC 8462852 was just too irregular. While astronomers and observers worked on cataloging its dimmings, they also talked to an astronomer who had been thinking hard about what we might see if a distant star had planets with life on them. And, in particular, if that life was technologically able to build superstructures around their star to harvest its light (for example).    What Could it Be? If a big structure orbited a star, it could cause the variability in the stars brightness to be irregular or even random-seeming. Of course, there are some caveats with this idea. First, distance is a problem. Even a fairly large structure would be difficult to detect from Earth, even with very strong detectors. Second, the star itself could have some strange variable pattern, and astronomers would need to observe it for longer periods of time to figure out what it is. Third, stars with dust clouds around them can also have fairly large planetary structures forming. Those planetesimals could also cause irregular brightness dips in the starlight we detect from Earth, especially if they were orbiting at staggered distances. Finally, catastrophic collisions between clumps of material around a star could deliver huge groups of objects such as cometary nuclei in orbit around the star. Those could also affected the perceived brightness of the star.   The Simple Truth In science, theres a rule that we follow called Occams Razor - it means, essentially, for any given event or object you observe, generally the most plausible explanation is the simplest one.   In this case, stars with clumps of dust, planetesimals, or roving exo-comets are more likely than aliens. Thats because stars FORM in cloud of gas and dust, and younger stars still have material around them left over from the formation of their planets. KIC 8462852 could be in in a planet-forming stage, consistent with its age and mass (its about 1.4 times the mass of the Sun and a bit younger than our star). So, the simplest explanation here is NOT an alien megacomplex, but swarms of comets.   The Search Protocol The search for extrasolar planets has always been a prelude to a search for life elsewhere in the universe. Each star and planet system discovered to have worlds has to be examined carefully so that astronomers understand its inventory of planets, moons, rings, asteroids, and comets. Once thats done, the next step is to figure out if the worlds are friendly to life -- that is, are they habitable? They do this by trying to understand if the world has an atmosphere, where it is in its orbit around the star, and what its evolutionary state might be.   So far, none have been found hospitable. But, theyll be found. Odds are, there is intelligent life elsewere in the universe. Eventually, we will detect it - or it will find us. In the meantime, astronomers on Earth continue to search for habitable planets around likely stars. The more they study, they more theyll be ready to recognize lifes effects elsewhere.

What Is Communication and How to Use It Effectively

What Is Communication and How to Use It Effectively Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages through verbal or nonverbal means, including speech, or oral communication; writing  and graphical representations (such as infographics, maps, and charts); and  signs,  signals, and behavior. More simply, communication is said to be the creation and exchange of meaning.   Media critic and theorist James Carey  defined communication as a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired and transformed in his 1992 book Communication as Culture, positing that we define our reality via sharing our experience with others. All creatures on earth have developed means in which to convey their emotions and thoughts to one another. However, its the ability of humans to use words and language to transfer specific  meanings that sets them apart from the animal kingdom. Components of Communication To break it down, in any communication there is a sender and a receiver, a message, and interpretations of meaning on both ends. The receiver gives feedback to the sender of the message, both during the messages conveyance and afterward. Feedback signals can be verbal or nonverbal, such as nodding in agreement or looking away and sighing or other myriad gestures. Theres also the context of the message, the environment its given in, and potential for interference during its sending or receipt.   If the receiver can see the sender, he or she can obtain not only the messages contents but also nonverbal communication that the sender is giving off, from confidence to nervousness, professionalism to flippancy. If the receiver can hear the sender, he or she can also pick up cues from the senders tone of voice, such as emphasis and emotion.   Rhetorical Communication- The Written Form Another thing that sets humans apart from their animal cohabiters is our use of writing as a means of communication, which has been a part of the human experience for more than  5,000 years. In fact, the first essay - coincidentally about speaking effectively - is estimated to be from around the year 3,000 B.C., originating in Egypt, though it wasnt until much later that the general population was considered literate. Still, James C. McCroskey notes in An Introduction to Rhetorical Communication that texts like these are significant because they establish the historical fact that interest in rhetorical communication is nearly 5,000 years old. In fact, McCroskey posits that most ancient texts were written as instructions for communicating effectively, further emphasizing early civilizations value of furthering the practice. Through time this reliance has only grown, especially in the Internet age. Now, written or rhetorical communication is one of the favored and primary means of talking to one another - be it an instant message or a text, a Facebook post or a tweet. As Daniel Boorstin observed in Democracy and Its Discontents, the most important single change in human consciousness in the last century, and especially in the American consciousness, has been the multiplying of the means and forms of what we call communication. This is especially true in modern times with the advent of texting, e-mail, and social media as forms of communicating with others around the world. With more means of communication,  there are also  now even more ways to be misunderstood than ever. If a message contains just the written word (such as a text or email), the sender needs to be confident in its clarity, that it cannot be misinterpreted. Emails can often come off cold or clipped without that being the intention of the sender, for example, yet its not considered professional to have emoticons in formal communication to help convey  the proper meaning and context.  Ã‚   Before You Open Your Mouth or Hit Send Before preparing your message, whether its going to be in person one-on-one, in front of an audience, over the phone, or done in writing, consider the audience wholl be receiving your information, the context, and your means to convey it. What way will be the most effective? What will you have to do to ensure its conveyed properly? What do you want to make sure that you dont convey? If its important and going to be relayed in a professional context, maybe youll practice beforehand, prepare slides and graphics, and pick out professional attire so that your appearance or mannerisms dont distract from your  message. If its a written message youre preparing, youll likely want to proofread, make sure the recipients name is spelled correctly and read it aloud to find dropped words or clunky phrasing before sending it.

A Critical Analysis of Duncan Joness Moon Essay

A Critical Analysis of Duncan Joness Moon - Essay Example The movie setup represents a futuristic aspect whereby human beings have managed to solve their fuel problems, and hence managed to substitute the earthly fuel reserves with newly discovered oil supplements on the moon. Therefore, Sam’s role was to make observations, and communicate with other members of the extraction team on earth. For, a common case, human beings perceive science fiction to be associated with scientific innovations and matters concerning the space and the moon in general. Human being's perception about science fiction involves the belief that the moon and other features found within the earths galaxy basically indicated untapped fields. As a result , most of the scriptwriters and movie directors tend to incorporate the aspects of complex machinery, with amazing features and abilities. This feature basically forms an illusion that some of the features that are relayed in the movies will be realized after a number of years. This feature makes up the entire co ntent of the science fiction movies. The features will be the basis of discussion in the following essay. The movie moon, clearly illustrated the various innovations that the modern day scientist has not been able to achieve. It is a clear reflection of the scientific milestones that human beings hope to achieve in the near future. According to the movie, the human being character exhibited , gives the impression that the post -modern human being is surely and educated on the various earthly complications, that affect life, on the surface of the earth. Secondly, the human being exhibited in the movie is also knowledgeable about the various environmental implications of mining, and the results of disruption of activities in the biosphere. According to Science Tech Story (2013), Science fiction movies are usually far from reality. The Creators of such movies, do not usually have the real data and reference material that can back up their illustrations. They base their work on mere spe culation, and also the relation to the present innovations, that have come up in comparison to the previously produced science fiction films. In comparison to Cinema, science fiction according to Bradshaw. P (2009), takes an animated view, most of the highlighted subjects are usually fabricated, or the authors merely make an assumption of futuristic occurrences. Generally, the information reflected upon is entirely false, or there is some little bit of truth in it. Scott. A.O ( 2009), noted that science fiction movies tend to adopt some of the already proven information. In addition, they make certain alterations to it, in order to enable people to relate to it, which might in a way influence how they respond to the movie. A cinema on the other hand is not different from science fiction, according to Velasco. R. J (2013), cinema is basically the British name for movie theatres. Science fiction is in itself a component of both cinema and television. Many schools may hold the opinion that one is the improvement of the other, but in real sense both are different from each other. Science fiction is a field that is endowed with numerous scientific modifications. To be able to come up with efficient technology, involving both cinema and television viewing, there must be an application of efficient technological advancements that back up this invention. This among other issues generally relates to both fields. Science fiction is a field related to advancement in technological creations. Some of the innovations made in the yester years that served as key indicators of the changes are displayed by the televisions. Science fiction relays the future as time with significant changes in motion. When the same